Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics; Positivism and Post-positivistic Approach to Research
Author: Bhat Aijaz Ahmad | Category: Research Methodology | Updated: October 2025
1. Research: Meaning, Types, and Characteristics
Meaning of Research
The term Research originates from the French word recherche, which means “to search again” or “to investigate thoroughly.” It refers to a systematic and objective process of discovering new knowledge, interpreting existing facts, or revising established theories. Research is the cornerstone of knowledge advancement across disciplines.
Multiple Definitions of Research
- Clifford Woody (1927): “Research comprises defining and redefining problems, formulating hypotheses, collecting data, analyzing facts, and reaching conclusions.”
- C.R. Kothari (2004): “Research is a scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.”
- Kerlinger (1973): “Scientific research is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical propositions about the presumed relations among natural phenomena.”
- Best and Kahn (2014): “Research is the more formal, systematic, and intensive process of carrying on a scientific method of analysis.”
Objectives of Research
- To discover new facts and verify existing knowledge.
- To establish cause-and-effect relationships between variables.
- To find practical solutions to identified problems.
- To contribute to the development of theories and models.
- To support evidence-based decision-making and policy formation.
Types of Research
(a) Based on Purpose
- Pure (Fundamental) Research: Conducted for the sake of knowledge without immediate application (e.g., theoretical physics).
- Applied Research: Aimed at solving specific, practical problems (e.g., educational interventions).
- Action Research: Used by practitioners to improve their own practice or environment (e.g., classroom teaching improvement).
(b) Based on Method
- Quantitative Research: Employs measurable data and statistical tools to test hypotheses.
- Qualitative Research: Focuses on understanding experiences, meanings, and interpretations using interviews, observations, or case studies.
- Mixed Methods Research: Combines both quantitative and qualitative techniques to strengthen findings.
(c) Based on Approach
- Descriptive Research: Describes the characteristics of a phenomenon or population.
- Exploratory Research: Conducted to explore a new area where little knowledge exists.
- Experimental Research: Establishes causal relationships through manipulation and control of variables.
- Correlational Research: Examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulation.
Characteristics of Research
- Systematic: Follows a logical sequence of steps from problem identification to conclusion.
- Empirical: Based on observable evidence and verifiable data.
- Objective: Free from personal bias and emotional influence.
- Replicable: Can be repeated to verify findings.
- Analytical: Involves critical analysis and interpretation of data.
- Accurate and Reliable: Findings are consistent and dependable.
- Innovative: Contributes new insights or approaches.
Importance of Research
Research enhances knowledge, supports policy development, fosters innovation, and drives socio-economic progress. In education, it refines pedagogy; in science, it fuels discovery; and in social sciences, it promotes human understanding and social justice.
2. Positivism and Post-positivistic Approach to Research
Meaning of Positivism
Positivism is a philosophical stance emphasizing that knowledge must be derived from empirical, observable phenomena. Founded by Auguste Comte (1798–1857), positivism asserts that scientific inquiry is the only valid approach to understanding reality. It rejects metaphysical and speculative explanations, focusing instead on verifiable data.
Positivism underpins quantitative research, where hypotheses are tested under controlled conditions to establish cause-and-effect relationships.
Assumptions of Positivism
- Reality is objective and independent of the observer.
- Knowledge is based on sensory experience and empirical observation.
- Scientific methods ensure objectivity and precision.
- Findings are generalizable and replicable.
Characteristics of Positivistic Research
- Use of quantitative data and statistical analysis.
- Emphasis on hypothesis testing and prediction.
- Control of extraneous variables.
- Structured instruments (e.g., surveys, experiments).
Limitations of Positivism
Positivism often ignores subjective experiences, emotions, and social contexts. It assumes one objective reality, neglecting the multiple realities perceived by individuals.
Post-positivistic Approach
Post-positivism evolved as a corrective to positivism’s limitations. Influenced by thinkers like Karl Popper, Thomas Kuhn, and Guba & Lincoln, it acknowledges that complete objectivity is impossible. It maintains that while reality exists, it can only be known imperfectly through human interpretation.
Core Principles of Post-positivism
- Reality exists but can only be partially apprehended.
- Knowledge is provisional and revisable.
- Research should use multiple methods for validation (triangulation).
- Researcher bias and values influence inquiry.
Characteristics of Post-positivistic Research
- Emphasizes critical realism and contextual understanding.
- Accepts both quantitative and qualitative data.
- Values pluralism and multiple perspectives.
- Seeks explanation rather than prediction alone.
Comparison between Positivism and Post-positivism
| Aspect | Positivism | Post-positivism |
|---|---|---|
| Reality | Objective and measurable | Real but imperfectly knowable |
| Researcher Role | Detached observer | Participant acknowledging bias |
| Methods | Quantitative | Mixed methods |
| Goal | Prediction and control | Understanding and interpretation |
| Nature of Knowledge | Absolute and certain | Provisional and revisable |
Conclusion
The evolution from positivism to post-positivism signifies a shift from absolute objectivity to reflective inquiry. While positivism offers precision and replicability, post-positivism integrates complexity, context, and human understanding—making research more inclusive and realistic.
3. Practice MCQs
- 1. Who is regarded as the father of Positivism?
A. Karl Popper B. Auguste Comte C. Max Weber D. Emile Durkheim
Answer: B. Auguste Comte - 2. Which research type aims at solving practical problems?
A. Basic Research B. Applied Research C. Theoretical Research D. Action Research
Answer: B. Applied Research - 3. “Research is a systematic search for knowledge” — who said this?
A. C.R. Kothari B. Best C. Clifford Woody D. Kerlinger
Answer: A. C.R. Kothari - 4. Which is not a characteristic of good research?
A. Objective B. Replicable C. Biased D. Logical
Answer: C. Biased - 5. Post-positivism emphasizes:
A. Complete objectivity B. Value-free inquiry C. Imperfect knowledge D. Pure quantification
Answer: C. Imperfect knowledge - 6. Which type of research focuses on developing theories?
A. Applied B. Fundamental C. Action D. Descriptive
Answer: B. Fundamental - 7. Who among the following criticized positivism?
A. Auguste Comte B. Karl Popper C. Newton D. Einstein
Answer: B. Karl Popper - 8. Empirical evidence means:
A. Based on faith B. Based on authority C. Based on observation D. Based on theory only
Answer: C. Based on observation - 9. The Latin root ‘re’ and ‘search’ literally mean:
A. Look forward B. Search again C. Test a theory D. Discover a fact
Answer: B. Search again - 10. Mixed method research combines:
A. Quantitative and Qualitative methods B. Experimental and Historical methods C. Theoretical and Practical D. None
Answer: A. Quantitative and Qualitative methods
4. Common Abbreviations in Research
- R&D: Research and Development
- ICT: Information and Communication Technology
- SPSS: Statistical Package for the Social Sciences
- ANOVA: Analysis of Variance
- APA: American Psychological Association
- DOI: Digital Object Identifier
- FDP: Faculty Development Programme
- UGC: University Grants Commission
- MOOCs: Massive Open Online Courses
- SWAYAM: Study Webs of Active Learning for Young Aspiring Minds
- NDLI: National Digital Library of India
- AICTE: All India Council for Technical Education
- CBT: Computer-Based Testing
- CBCS: Choice Based Credit System
- OER: Open Educational Resources
- MLA: Modern Language Association
- PDF: Portable Document Format
- URL: Uniform Resource Locator
- WWW: World Wide Web
- ISBN: International Standard Book Number
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